cell division

Chromosomes are structures located in the nucleus of the cell. They are made of DNA and protein. Chromosomes are long thin threads called chromatin until cell division occurs. Then they become visible as rod-like chromosomes. Chromosomes are composed of genes. All the genes of an organism make up the organism’s genome. Genes control the physical characteristics of a species. All organisms of the same species contain the same number of chromosomes in their nuclei.
HAPLOID AND DIPLOID CELLS

          Haploid cells contain 1 set of chromosomes in their nuclei. Diploid cells contain 2 sets of chromosomes in their nuclei. The human species contain 46 chromosomes in their nuclei. This is the diploid (2n) number. The sex cells of the species have 23 chromosomes in their nuclei. This is the haploid (n) number. When fertilisation takes place the 23 chromosomes (n) from the father (called Paternal chromosomes) and the 23 chromosomes (n) from the mother (called the Maternal chromosomes) combine to form the diploid (2n=46) number of chromosomes in the fertilised egg cell.
THE STAGES OF THE CELL CYCLE

INTERPHASE This is the part of the cell’s life process when it does not divide. In this phase the cell grows, proteins and enzymes are made, and it increases the number of cytoplasmic organelles. Near the end of interphase chromosome duplication occurs. When this occurs the single strand  chromosome becomes a double strand. Each strand has identical genes.
MITOSIS-DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS:Mitosis is the division of the nucleus. Two daughter nuclei, genetically identical the original nucleus, are formed. The 2 cells formed by mitosis are called daughter cells.
STAGES OF MITOSIS
PROPHASE As seen on the diagram below, the chromatin condenses forming chromosomes. Each chromosome is composed of two identical sister chromatids connected at the centromere. At this stage the nucleolus and the nuclear membrane break down and the spindle fibres form.

METAPHASE

As seen on the diagram below, the chromosomes line up along the middle of the cell. Each chromosome is connected to both sides of the cell by spindle fibres attached to the centromeres.

ANAPHASE As seen on the diagram below, the spindle fibres shorten (contract) and split the pair of chromosomes at the centromeres. The 2 sets of chromosomes are pulled to the opposite sides (poles) of the cell.

TELOPHASE As seen on the diagram below, each chromosome group becomes a nucleus when a nuclear membrane is formed around it. The chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin and the nucleolus reforms. 

MEIOSIS

A human body cell contains 23 pairs of chromosomes. The gametes - sperm or eggs - contain half this number of chromosomes, which is why meiosis is sometimes called 'reduction division'. (For more on chromosomes go to DNA and genes)

Before meiosis begins, the chromosomes are copied exactly. The DNA of each chromosome is replicated to form two chromatids. They then arrange themselves into homologous pairs (both coding for the same characteristics), and prepare for cell division. At this point maternal and paternal chromatids can exchange bits of DNA to recombine their genetic material and increase the potential for variation.

The homologous pairs of chromosomes then separate and move to the poles of the parent nucleus. For each of the 23 pairs there is a 50-50 chance as to which pole the paternal or maternal pair of chromatids goes. With over 8 million possibilities there are many opportunities for variation.

The nucleus now divides to form two daughter nuclei, each with a mixture of paternal and maternal chromosomes but with half the full complement of genetic material (and no pairs at all). This division is called Meiosis 1.

Finally the two daughter nuclei themselves divide to form gametes. This second division - Meiosis 2 - works just like mitosis. The chromosomes (really pairs of chromatids) split apart to form the genetic material of the four new cells. The end result is four sex cells each with a complete but single set of 23 chromosomes.

On fertilisation the nuclei of the sperm and the egg join to form a new nucleus, called the zygote. The zygote contains 23 pairs of chromosomes - 23 single chromosomes from the sperm, and 23 single chromosomes from the egg.
The Significance if mitosis:

1. it produces two identical daughter cells that have the same number of chromosomes
2. genetic information on the chromosomes are identical
3. some organisms can reproduce asexually by mitosis. (bacteria)
4. growth and repair

The significance of meiosis:

1. meiosis reduces the chromosome number in the cell by half
2. chromosome diploid number is restored on fertilisation
3. reproduction in some organisms, production of gametes

The Respiratory System

The Respiratory System

• Respiration

 

The respiratory system allows intake of oxygen to, and removal of carbon dioxide from the body via the lungs
The intake of oxygen and expulsion of carbon dioxide is known as gaseous exchange
Air is taken in through the mouth. It passes through the pharynx and larynx to the trachea
The trachea is kept open by rings of cartilage
The trachea splits into two bronchi that lead into each lung. The bronchi split into bronchioles which eventually end in air sacs called alveoli

• Alveoli are surrounded by capillaries. Gaseous exchange of carbon dioxide and oxygen take place in the alveoli when CO2 pass from the capillaries to the alveoli and O2 passes from the alveoli to the capillaries.


• The lungs are protected by the rib cage. The diaphragm lies below the lungs and moves downwards to allow the lungs to expand when an animal inhales air

The Skeleton

The Skeleton

• Functions of the skeleton
  Support
  – to give the body shape and support soft tissues
  Protection
  –some organs such as the brain, heart and lungs are protected by the skeleton
  Movement
  –muscles are attached to bone
  Mineral storage
  Production of red blood cells


• Structure of Bone
  Joint
  –A place where two or more bones meet
  Cartilage
  –A layer of tissue found on bones between joints which reduces friction
  Spongy bone
  –Responsible for production of red blood cells
  Medullary cavity
  –Produces white blood cells
  Compact bone
  – The outer layer of bone which is hard


• Connective Tissue
  Adipose tissue
  – Its main function is to store fat. It is also used for insulation
  Tendons
  – Connect muscle to bone. Inelastic fibers made of collagen
  Ligaments
  – Connect two bones together at a joint. Also made of collagen
  Muscular tissue
  –Muscles cause movement in the body when they contract


• Muscle Types
  Skeletal muscle
  –Voluntary muscle attached to bones
  –It is under conscious control
  –Example: muscles in legs
  Smooth muscle
  –Involuntary muscle that lines internal organs such as the oesophagus
  Cardiac muscle
  –Involuntary muscle that does not fatigue
  –Found in the heart

The Nervous System and endocrine

• The Nervous System

The nervous system in vertebrate animals consists of two parts:
–Central Nervous System (CNS)
–Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
The central nervous system consists of
–The brain
–The spinal cord
The peripheral nervous system consists of
–Sensory nerves
–Motor nerves
A nerve cell is called a neuron.

• The Nervous System
  This allows an animal to detect what is going on in the world around it.
  It includes the brain, the spinal chord and the nerve cells.
  The nervous system controls receptors such as the eye and the ear and it also control the effectors the most important of which are muscles.


• The Endochrine System


• The Endochrine System


• 


• This is the hormone system in the body.
  Hormones are produced in very small quantities, transported by the circulatory system to specific parts of the body, where they can stimulate or inhibit actions in the target organ or tissue.
  Hormones are produced in many parts of the body e.g. the pituitary gland, the thyroid glands, the parathyroid glands, the pancreas, the adrenal glands and the gonads.


• Milk Let-Down
  External factors such as the sight or sound of a calf or entering the milking parlour and being having teats rubbed.
  This sends a message to the brain which cause the hormone oxytocin to be produced by the pituitary gland.
  This message is carried in the blood to the udder causing milk alveoli to contract releasing milk.


• Endocrine Glands
  The pituitary gland is located at the base of the brain.
  Some of the hormones produced by the pituitary are growth hormone, prolactin, luteinising hormone (LH), follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and oxytocin.
  Oxytocin is responsible for milk let down and contractions during birth.


• Thyroid glands
  –Located in the neck and produce thyroxine which regulates metabolism in the body and is responsible for growth
  Parathyroid glands
  –Located on the surface of the thyroid glands. They release parathyroid hormone which regulates calcium levels in the bones and blood.
  The Pancreas
  –Secretes insulin into the bloodstream when there are high levels of glucose in the body. The liver and muscle cells take up the glucose. Glucose is stored as glycogen in the liver.
  Adrenal glands
  –Produce adrenalin when the body is under stress.


• Sex Hormones
  Androgens are hormones responsible for male sex characteristics and are produced in the testis. Testosterone is an androgen
  Freemartin condition occurs in twin calves where one is male and the other is female. Hormones pass from the male to the female in the womb leaving the female infertile
  Ovaries secrete oestrogen and progesterone.
  Oestrogen promotes the sex characteristics in females.
  Progesterone allows for the growth of the uterus during gestation.

The Kidney and Urine Production

The Kidney and Urine Production

• The Kidney and Urine Production
  Blood arrives in the kidneys through the renal artery and leaves through the renal vein.
  Blood is filtered in the kidney, it removes harmful compounds and excess salts.
  The amount of water in the blood is also controlled
  Urine is formed in the kidney and passes to the bladder through the ureter.
  Urine leaves the bladder through the urethra.


• 


• Structure of the Kidney
  The kidney consists of tubules called nephrons.
  Nephrons are located in the cortex of the kidney.
  The Loop of Henle and Bowman’s Capsule are parts of the nephron.

Digestive Systems

Digestive Systems

• Mammalian Teeth
  Mammals have different teeth depending on what they eat.
  Herbivores have incisors for biting and premolars and molars for chewing grass.
  Carnivores have very large canines for ripping and tearing meat.
  Omnivores have a mixture of all teeth.

Foods
Chemicals found in foods include carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water.
During digestion these foods are broken down into their different chemical components.
These chemicals are broken down further and absorbed.

• The Digestive System

 

The digestive system includes:
–Ingestion – taking in food.
–Digestion – breaking down food.
–Absorption – absorbing the nutrients.
–Assimilation – using the food.
–Egestion – eliminating the undigested food.

• Ingestion
  Physical and chemical digestion occurs in the mouth.
  When animals see or smell food they produce saliva from 3 pairs of salivary glands in the mouth.
  Saliva contains a slimy lubricating substance called mucus and an enzyme salivary amylase that breaks starch down to maltose.
  This mixing of food with saliva is called mastication and results in a bolus being formed which is swallowed.


• The Oesophagus
  food passes down a long tube called the oesophagus to the stomach.
  Rhythmical contractions of the muscles called peristalsis propel the bolus along.
  Birds have a special storage organ at the base of the oesophagus called the crop.


• The Birds Stomach


• 
  Part of the stomach of a bird is called the gizzard and it contains grit which the bird has swallowed.
  This grit along with muscle movement grinds hard foods such as cereal grains.


• Rabbit and Pig Stomachs


• 
  There is only one chamber in these stomachs and so they are called monogastrics.
  Digestive juices are produced such as hydrochloric acid, pepsin and rennin.
  Rennin is very important in young animals as it digests milk protein.
  Food enters the stomach through the cardiac sphincter and leaves through the pyloric sphincter.


• Digesting Cellulose
  Cellulose is a valuable food source if it can be digested.
  Some animals are able to digest cellulose by culturing bacteria, that live in their digestive system, and digest the cellulose for them.
  One of these groups have normal stomachs and long intestines with micro organisms in the hind gut. They are called hind-gut fermenters e.g. rabbits and horses.
  The second group have a specialised stomach with four chambers and are called ruminants e.g. sheep and cows


• Herbivores with monogastric stomachs ferment their food in the large intestine and the appendix.
  This fermentation (anaerobic respiration) digests the cellulose.


• The Ruminant Stomach


• 
  The stomach consists of four chambers:
  –The rumen – contains anaerobic bacteria and protozoa that digest cellulose. Ruminants also digest some of the micro organisms and get protein from them.
  –The reticulum – has a honeycomb wall and digests food further before it is passed back to the mouth for further mastication.
  –The omasum – cud enters here and water is squeezed out and absorbed, solids pass to fourth chamber.
  –The abomasum – like the normal stomach of a monogastric where digestive juices are produced. Calves send milk straight to the abomasum where it is digested by rennin.


• The Small Intestine
  The first part of the small intestine is called the duodenum.
  Bile, produced in the liver, is added to food here and helps break down fat.
  Pancreatic juices, produced in the pancreas, contains a number of enzymes including pancreatic amylase that breaks down starch.
  Pancreatic juices are also added in the duodenum and further break down the food.


• Further along the small intestine intestinal juice, which contains the enzymes sucrase (breaks down sucrose) and lactase (breaks down lactose), are added.
  The internal surface of the small intestine is called the ileum. It has villi that increase its surface area and help absorption of nutrients


• 


• The Liver: Functions
  Production of bile to emulsify fats and lipids
  Storage of glucose in the form of glycogen.
  Storage of Vitamins A,D,E,K
  The breakdown of toxic substances
  –Ammonia is converted to urea
  The breakdown of red blood cells
  Temperature regulation

Spring Barley

Spring Barley

• 1. Importance – Most widely grown cereal either for feeding or malting.
  2. Soil Type – Brown earths and grey brown pozolics. Deep sandy loams. pH 6.5 – 7. Dry weather for harvest.
  3. Seed Bed Preparation – plough in autumn to improve structure and harrow in spring to produce a fine seedbed.
  4. Seed – use Dept. of Ag. Certified seed choosing variety from Recommended List to ensure good crop e.g. Quench
  5. Sowing – sow as early as weather permits (March) with combine drill at a rate of 125-140kg/ha. Tillering will ensure 900 ears/m2. Roll seedbed.
  6. Use of Fertiliser – Apply a compound such as 10:10:20 with combine drill. N requirement depends on previous cropping history, soil type, rainfall and variety. P and K requirement depends on soil test.
  7. Disease & Pest Control – wireworms and smut are controlled by seed treatment. Mildew, rust and BYDV can be controlled by spraying crop (e.g. of spray = Bravo). Crop rotation and certified seed will reduce risk of attack.
  8. Weed Control – Weeds compete for moisture and nutrients and seeds can contaminate grain. Use crop rotation and stubble cleaning. Identify weed and use selective herbicide. Spray early when weed soft.
  9. Harvesting – Harvest when grain is dry and hard and moisture content is as low as possible. Straw dry and bleached and ear lies parallel to stem (usually August). Use combine harvester with all parts set correctly to minimise losses. Good yield 7-8 t/ha.
  10. Storage – Main source of damage is sprouting and attack by bacteria, fungi and insects. Dry the grain to 14% moisture to stop the above. Where grain is kept for feeding on farm use acid treatment which kills grain to prevent germination and stops bacterial attack.

Potatoes

Potatoes
1. Importance – Grown as first earlies, second earlies or maincrop. Ireland is self sufficient and exports some seed potatoes
2. Soil Type – grow on wide range of soils but like well drained deep loams with few stones. pH 5-6.
3. Rotation – very important to control potato cyst nematode (PCN). Only grow 1 in 4 years, best after a ley.
4. Use of Fertiliser – Broadcast a compound such as 7:6:17 or 10:10:20 on seedbed before ridging. N requirement depends on previous cropping history, soil type, rainfall and variety. P and K requirement depends on soil test. Too much N gives watery spud.
5. Seed Bed Preparation – plough in autumn to a depth of 22cm, power harrow in spring to give fine deep seedbed. Stones may be removed. Place the soil in well rounded ridges 76cm apart and plant spuds in furrow.
6. Seed – use Dept. of Ag. Certified seed choosing variety depending on category of potato e.g. first early = Homeguard, second early = British Queen and maincrop = Rooster.
7. Planting – Plant spuds 10cm deep with automatic or semi-automatic planter. Space spuds 25-35cm apart depending on seed size. Seed should be sprouted prior to planting to increase yield.
8. Weed Control – earthing up reduces weeds and protects spuds from sunlight and blight spores. Also use total contact and residual herbicide when 15-20% of crop has emerged. When the haulms meet across the drills the weeds are prevented by shading.
9. Earthing Up – Carried out when crop is 20-25cm high. Furrows deepened and ridges widened. A valuable aid in weed control. Helps to prevent greening of potatoes and also reduces risk of blight spores being washed into tubers.
10. Diseases & Pests (Control) – main ones are PCN (crop rotation) and potato blight (spray systemic fungicide). Others include wireworms, slugs, aphids (insecticides) and blackleg and common scab (seed treatment).
11. Harvesting – Kill off haulms with spray 3 weeks before harvest and use elevator digger or complete potato harvester. Earlies in May/June yield 7 - 10 t/ha, maincrop in September/October yield 30 – 40 t/ha.

Animal Nutrition, Feeds and Body Condition

Animal Nutrition, Feeds and Body Condition

• Feedstuff Composition
  Dry matter – this is what is left when all the water is removed from a feed.
  Crude protein – this is an estimation of the amount of protein in a feed. Protein is used for growth and repair.
  Crude fibre – mainly cellulose which not all animals can digest.
  Metabolisable energy – the energy that is used to produce milk, meat or wool.
• Bulky Feeds vs Concentrates
  Bulky feeds are feeds that are high in water and/or fibre.
  Concentrates are feeds that are low in water and fibre.
  Concentrates would have more nutrients packed into a smaller space.
• Bulky Feeds
  Fresh grass - the most common but can be very variable in composition.
  Silage and hay – silage is a better feed than hay.
  Root crops – good energy value but low in protein.
  Straw – low nutritive value.
  Forage crops – crop grown to be grazed e.g. kale & rape – Limit intake as chemical agents in the vegetation interfere with iodine utilisation causing blood disorders.
• Concentrates
  Cereal grains – used as a source of energy. Rolling and grinding are used to improve their digestibility.
  Cereal grain by-products – bran and distillers grain.
  Molasses, beet pulp – molasses is very palatable, beet pulp good nutritive value but high in fibre.
  Soya bean meal – high in protein.
  Feed supplements – vitamins and minerals either included in feedstuffs or supplied as licks in buckets or blocks.
• Nutrient Requirements
  1.Requirement for Maintenance:
  Amount of nutrients needed to keep bodyweight and composition constant.
  2.Requirement for Production:
  Amount of nutrients fed above what is needed for maintenance and goes towards producing meat, milk, wool or offspring.
• Ration Formulation
  A ration is a mixture of food given to an animal.
  We formulate rations based on what the animal requires, what the ingredients contain and how much the animal will eat.
  Teagasc have calculated what each animal requires at various stages of growth for maintenance and production.
• Conformation
  Conformation refers to the shape of an animal and in particular the distribution of muscle on the body.
  Good conformation means muscle is concentrated in the parts of the carcass that have the most value i.e. hindquarters and back.
  The main factor influencing conformation is breed.
  Continentals have the best conformation followed by British beef breeds and the dairy breeds have the worst conformation.
• Body Condition Scoring (BCS)
  This is the condition of animals in terms of lean and fat.
  It is very important for breeding females to be in correct BCS.
  BCS is based on examining the animal by hand to access the amount of fat cover on areas such as backbone, loin, transverse process and tailhead.
  Range 0-5 for cows and ewes and 0-9 for sows.
  0 is the thinnest and 5 or 9 the fattest. Values in the middle are best.

Animal Health and Welfare

Animal Health and Welfare

• What Influences Animal Health
  1.Diet
  2.Living Environment
  These are to some degree in the farmers control.


• Diet
  A poorly fed animal will not grow and develop properly and will have a weaker immune system.
  Proper nutrition starts before the animal is born, if the dam(mother) is not fed well the animal will be small and weak when born.
  Feeding colostrum as soon as possible after birth allows antibodies to be passed onto the animal which help in disease resistance.


• Living Environment
  Indoors unhygienic conditions can be caused by dirty houses, bad ventilation, vermin, failure to isolate sick or bought in animals, failure to disinfect visitors footwear.
  Outdoors unhygienic conditions can be caused by dirty water supply, infected pastures, vermin, failure to isolate sick animals, failure to remove dead animals, foetuses or afterbirths

 

• Animal Husbandry
  This means how the animals are managed and if they are managed poorly then disease can occur.
  For example:
  –Cold wet housing
  –Stress
  –Failure to spot disease
  –Failure to vaccinate or treat animals
  –Improper feeding


• Notifiable Diseases
  Highly contagious, serious risk to National Herd.
  Must notify District Veterinary Office, it’s the law.


• Zoonoses
  Diseases which can be transmitted from animals to humans.
  Some notifiable diseases are also zoonoses.
  Examples of zoonoses include:
  –Brucellosis
  –TB
  –Ringworm
  –Orf


• Animal Diseases
  Three categories:
  1.Caused by micro-organisms
  2.Caused by parasites
  3.Caused by poor nutrition


• Micro Organisms
  Mode of Action:
  –Pathogens enter body causing irritation, inflammation, fever and loss of condition.
  –Toxins may be produced.
  –Diarrhoea may cause dehydration and death.
  Prevention:
  –Clean living environment.
  –Dispose of unhygienic material safely and quickly.
  –Isolate affected animals immediately.
  Treatment:
  –Natural defence of the animal.
  –Antibiotics may be necessary.


• Parasites
  Mode of Action:
  –Internal:
  •Take nutrition
  •Damage tissues
  •Cause irritation and inflammation
  •Can cause diarrhoea
  •Can cause pneumonia
  •Death
  –External:
  •Irritate animal
  •Tissues damaged
  •Vectors of other diseases


• Prevention:
  –Detailed knowledge of life cycle is important.
  –Example fence off wet areas for liver fluke control or leader follower system for stomach worm control.
  Treatment:
  –A range of drugs are available
  –Consult vet


• Poor Nutrition
  Nutritional Diseases are grouped into 3 categories:
  1)Deficiency Diseases:
  •Animal is lacking something
  •Usually a vitamin or mineral
  2)Intake of Poison
  •Poisonous weeds e.g. ragworth and bracken
  •Lead poisoning from paint
  •Herbicides and pesticides
  3)Metabolic Disorders (Non infectious diseases)
  •Production diseases e.g. milk fever, twin lamb disease


• Biosecurity
  To prevent the entry of disease onto a farm:
  –Maintain a closed herd.
  –Quarantine all bought-in animals.
  –Erect good stock fences.
  –Limit access to farm by people and vehicles.
  –Control vermin.
  –Use disease-free AI.
  –Ensure all newborn animals receive colostrum.


• Welfare of Animals
  Welfare and health of farm stock are the responsibility of the farmer.
  The Five Freedoms:
  –Freedom from hunger, thirst and malnutrition
  –Freedom from discomfort
  –Freedom from pain, injury and disease
  –Freedom to express normal patterns of behaviour
  –Freedom from fear and distress

Suckler Herd

Suckler Herd

• Ideal Suckler Cow
  50% dairy and 50% continental beef animal (hybrid vigour)
  Crossbred suckler dams have:
  –Higher fertility
  –Lower calf mortality
  –Longer reproductive life
  –High milk yields which result in a higher growth rate in calves
  –Hardier calves
• Suckler Calves
  Calves from a suckler herd have higher growth rates
• Management of Suckler Herds Out On Grass
  Suckler herd should graze grass rotationally.
  Good quality grass will ensure dam will have good milk production for her calf.
  Calves should be allowed to creep graze concentrates or better quality grass.
  Heat detection aids should be used to identify when the suckler cow comes back into heat.
• Management in Year Two
  Management of the calf in the second year is the same as that of the calf to beef in two years.
• Reproductive Efficiency and Calving Interval for a Suckler Herd
  The reproductive efficiency of a suckler herd is the number of calves weaned per 100 cows served.
  Suckler cow or heifer must be at the correct BCS of 2.5 at mating.
  Heat detection is vital to keep calving interval at 365 days.
  Calving interval is the time elapsed between successive calvings.
• Other Types of Beef Production
  Bull beef production: bulls have better food conversion ratios. Presence of testosterone increases live weight gain. Bulls have more lean meat on their carcase than steers and attain better conformation scores.
  Heifer beef production: involves beef-crossed heifers from dairy herds. Lower growth rate than steers. Heifers finish at lighter weights.
• Cull cow finishing: culled cows from the dairy herd must be well fleshed with a BCS of 3.5 to attain a condition score of P+ and a fat score of 3L or 4L after slaughter.
• General Husbandry
  Castration: male calves not intended for breeding should be castrated at 8 to 12 weeks old. Castrated animals are easier to handle than bulls.
  Dehorning a calf: to prevent injury to other animals and anyone handling the calf.
  Tagging: traceability
• Dosing: calves are dosed routinely as large numbers of parasites set back the calves’ growth.
  TB and brucellosis testing: an eradication programme is in place to control TB. Herds are tested every 24 months for brucellosis unless a herd is being moved.

Beef Production in Ireland

Beef Production in Ireland

• National Importance
  2/3 of farms in Ireland have some beef production.
  90% of beef produced in Ireland is exported.
  1/3 exported to UK, 1/3 exported to other EU countries (France, Germany) and 1/3 exported to countries outside EU (Egypt, Libya, Iran)
  Most of the calves for beef production come from dairy herd.
  Beef farming is based, mainly, on grassland utilisation.
• Different Beef Enterprises in Ireland
  Calf to beef in two years
  Suckler herd
  Bull beef production
  Heifer beef production
  Culled cow finishing
• Breed
  Dairy farmers tend to use bulls that are good at producing animals that will milk well.
  They use Friesians or Holsteins, keep the heifer calves and milk them, and use the male calves for beef production.
  Friesian or Holstein calves are not suitable for beef production because they do not produce a high quality carcass.
  Some dairy cows will be put in calf to beef bulls and their offspring are more suitable for beef production but still not as good as calves bred from suckler cows.
• Beef Breeds
  There are two categories of beef breeds:
  –British Beef Breeds
  •Hereford
  •Aberdeen Angus
  –Continental Beef Breeds
  •Charolais
  •Limousin
  •Simmental
  •Belgian Blue
• Beef Breeds cont.
  British beef breeds will reach maturity earlier than Continentals and at lower weights.
  British breeds will not produce as high a quality carcass as Continental breeds.
  Continentals have higher weight gain and better conformation and are therefore the best beef breeds.
  Most suckler cows are a cross of Friesian x Hereford or pure Hereford and these are bred with Continental beef breeds.
• Comparison of Breeds
  Beef Breeds
  Block shaped.
  Head and neck short and thick.
  Hindquarters wide, well fleshed, broad shoulders.
  Shoulder blades well apart and well fleshed.
  Dairy Breeds
  Wedge shaped.
  Head and neck long and narrow.
  Hindquarters wide, not fleshed, shoulders narrow.
  Shoulder blades close together and not well fleshed.
• Growth Rates
  The speed at which an animal grows depends on what it is fed.
  If cattle are fed just concentrates they will grow quickly and will reach maturity and be slaughtered at just 1 year old.
  For a grassed based system as in Ireland it takes 1.5 – 2 years depending on level of feeding
  Continental breeds will be heavier at maturity than British breeds at maturity but it may take them a little over two years to mature.
• Compensatory Growth
  Most cattle in Ireland are not fed on a uniform plane of nutrition all the time.
  In winter cattle are fed moderate quality silage during what is called the store period.
  During this time their skeleton grows but they do put on very little flesh.
  Compensatory growth is growth which occurs when an animal is fed well after a period of restricted feeding (e.g. the store period)
• Compensatory Growth cont.
  So when animals are let out of the shed after the winter they grow very fast.
  Growth rates can be higher than if the cattle were fed at the same level all the time.
  Farmers in Ireland use this compensatory growth to their advantage as it keeps winter feed costs down and allows us to get the most out of grass which is cheap.
  Therefore compensatory growth allows farmers to have a low cost system which can be profitable.
• Two Year Old Beef
  When animals reach maturity at about two years old they start to produce a lot more fat.
  Consumers want lean meat not fatty meat and so animals should be slaughtered at two years old.
  Feed converted into fat is wasted as it is trimmed off the carcass and so the farmer looses money.
  Beef that takes three years to produce is inefficient and is a sign of poor farm management.
• Conformation
  Conformation refers to the shape of an animal and in particular the distribution of muscle on the body.
  Good conformation means muscle is concentrated in the parts of the carcass that have the most value i.e. hindquarters and back.
  The main factor influencing conformation is breed.
  Continentals have the best conformation followed by British beef breeds and the dairy breeds have the worst conformation.
• Grading Animals
  Animals are graded when they are slaughtered based on two criteria:
  1.Conformation (range from E {best} to P {worst})
  2.Fatness (range from 1 {leanest to 5 {fattest})
• Grading Animals cont.
  Most cattle in Ireland grade in area A but we want them in area B.
  If we can move the cattle to area B the cattle will be of high quality and suitable for export to valuable markets in France and Germany.
  The way we do this is to use Continental breeds and slaughter earlier
• Beef Production from the Dairy Herd Calf Rearing
  If calves are purchased they must be handled very carefully and weaned onto new diet.
  Buy calves from a farmer you know and trust.
  Transfer calves quickly and without stress.
• Calf Rearing cont.
  House calves in dry, draught-free sheds and let them rest and recover from their journey.
  Wean them onto their new diet gradually. Hay concentrates and clean water.
  Graze them as leaders in the leader follower system for the first summer.
• Rearing a Hereford X Friesian Beef Animal in 2 Years
  Calf:
  40kg
  Feeding consists of colostrum, milk (or milk replacer) and calf nuts and hay from day 10 to develop rumen. Water is available also.
  Parasites – scour may require treatment and lice may cause problems
  Lighter calves may require extra feeding
  Good housing with good ventilation and no draughts
• Rearing a Hereford X Friesian Beef Animal in 2 Years
  Calf at Weaning:
  75kg
  6 weeks – 8 weeks old
  Clean pasture, leaders in a leader follower system
  Continue feeding nut for 3-4 weeks
  Treat for stomach worms in June/July /August
  Watch for hoose/lungworm and treat if necessary
  Feed meals in autumn when grass becomes scarce
• 1st Winter
  200kg
  Production target is 0.6kg/day
  Group depending on size and feed accordingly
  Can use slats/straw bedded/cubicles
  1.4m2 floor space, 7m3 air space (good ventilation) and 0.3m feeding space per animal
  Feed top quality silage (70%+DMD) ad lib and meals (16%CP) to smaller animals. If silage is poor supplement with meals. Clean water available.
  Dose for worms and lice when entering shed and fluke 7-10 days later to kill all immature fluke
• 2nd Summer
  280kg
  Production target is 0.8kg/day (compensatory growth)
  Top quality grass, followers in a leader follower system
  Dose for worms, hoose and fluke as required
• 2nd Winter
  460kg
  Production target is 1kg/day
  Group depending on size and feed accordingly
  2.0m2 floor space, 10m3 air space (good ventilation) and 0.4m feeding space per animal
  Feed top quality silage (70%+DMD) ad lib and meals (16%CP) at a rate of 0.75kg per 100kg live weight if silage is poor quality. Clean water available.
  Dose for worms and lice when entering shed and fluke 7-10 days later to kill all immature fluke
  Ready for slaughter at 550kg at two years old
• Successful Calf to Beef System
  To produce a quality calf in a beef system the following must be taken into account:
  1.Good Grassland Management – Rotational grazing, calves grazing ahead, good application of fertilizer, resting the grassland for the winter.
  2.Good Housing – Slatted or cubicle housing will help to maintain target weight gains because food fed is used for Live Weight Gain and not to keep warm as happens with animals wintered outdoors.
  3.Good Husbandry – disease control such as parasites like lungworms, stomach worms, liver fluke and lice.
  4.Live weight gains – 0.7kg+/day should be the target with meals used to achieve this.
  5.Top Quality Silage – 3.5pH, 75% DMD, Golden.
  6.Good Stocking Rates – 3 weanlings/acre with a reduction as animals grow to 2/acre and 1/acre as grass growth curve drops.

Husbandry and Management Principles of a Dairy Herd

Husbandry and Management Principles of a Dairy Herd

• Typical Dairy Cow
  Weighs 40kg at birth
  Reaches puberty at 1 year old when she is 250kg
  Oestrus Cycle (reproductive cycle) is 21 days and oestrus (heat) lasts for 18 hours
  Gestation period (length of pregnancy) is 283 days


• Planning Production
  Milk production in Ireland is a low cost system based on producing milk from summer grass.
  Farmers must plan breeding so that cows calve in spring and are producing most of their milk when they are grazing grass.
  Farmers must also balance the amount of grass that is cut as silage because if too much is cut then cows will have to be fed concentrates in the summer and if too little is cut they will have to be fed concentrates in the winter.


• Managing the Dairy Cow
  Calving
  oMismanagement of the cow at calving can cause death, injury, loss of milk production or problems with cow fertility.
  oCows should be isolated, in a disinfected calving pen, 1-2 days before calving. Keep accurate breeding records.
  oAn experienced person should inspect the cow regularly.
  oCall the vet if there are any difficulties


• Calving
  Once the calf is born:
  Clear away all mucus from its airways.
  Allow the cow to lick the calf.
  Dip the calf’s navel in iodine.
  Ensure the calf receives 2 to 3 litres of colostrum.
  Tag the calf


• Calf Rearing
  Calves can be reared naturally by suckling the cow or artificially away from the cow.
  All dairy calves are reared artificially (bucket reared).
  The calves that are reared from the dairy herd may be used as replacements for older cows or they may end up being used for beef production.


• Calf Rearing
  Depending on the breed of bull used the calf will be different weight when born:
  Aberdeen Angus -35-40kg
  Friesian/Holstein - 40-45kg
  Continentals - 45-50kg


• Colostrum
  The importance of colostrum to the new born animal cannot be overstated.
  Colostrum is the first milk produced by the cow and is commonly called beastings.
  It is unlike normal milk because it has very high levels of vitamins, minerals, fat and most importantly antibodies.
  The new born animal must receive 10% of its bodyweight in colostrum within 12-24 hours after birth.
  There are two reasons to get it in quickly:
  (i) the level of antibodies is highest in colostrum directly after giving birth
  (ii) the calves ability to absorb those antibodies into its bloodstream decreases rapidly in the first day of its life.


• Functions of Colostrum
  1.A calf is born with no immune system and the antibodies in the colostrum prevent it from getting disease while it develops its own immune system.
  2.The increased fat level in colostrum acts as a laxative to clear out the calves digestive system.
  3.The increased fat, protein, vitamins and minerals in colostrum stimulate the calf to start growing.
  It has been shown that inadequate intake of colostrum can affect the calf's growth and development for at least three months. Most deaths in calves are linked to inadequate intake of colostrum early in life.


• Feeding the Calf
  The calf will be fed colostrum for 3-4 days.
  After this the calf will be fed milk or milk replacer(usually 2 litres twice a day).
  This is because the calf’s digestive system cannot digest cellulose based foods as its rumen is not developed.
  To help develop the rumen of the calf we offer it hay and concentrates from 1 week of age.
  At first it will eat very little but as the rumen develops it will eat more and more.
  When the calf is eating 500g of concentrates per day we can wean it off milk/milk replacer. This is usually happens at about 8 weeks of age.


• The Calf on Grass
  As soon as the weather is mild enough the calf is let out to grass.
  The calf should continue to be fed concentrates for three weeks to allow it to get used to its new diet.
  Calves are very selective grazers and should be given the pick of the best grass. For this reason we graze them as leaders in the leader follower system of grazing.
  This also helps to control stomach and lung worms as the calves have no resistance to these.
  When grass becomes scarce later in the year concentrates are again fed. By the first of November the calf should weigh 200kg.


• Managing the Dairy Cow
  Early Lactation
  For the first 3-4 days the cow produces colostrum which is fed to the calf.
  The sudden onset of milk production causes the cow to “milk off her back”
  When she enters the herd the cow should be fed very well (silage and concentrates) to ensure she reaches her lactation peak.
  Peak Yield X 200 = Total Lactation Yield
  First time heifers fed extra because they are not fully grown and we do not know their potential yield.
  Turn out to grass depends on weather, geographical location and fertiliser use.
  Continue to feed concentrates if grass is scarce and to very high yielding cows. (Watch for grass tetany)


• Breeding
  Cows fed well after calving to ensure they are in good condition when they are serviced again.
  Cows come into heat 3 – 8 weeks after calving.
  To ensure the calving interval (time between calvings) is kept at 12 months cows must be serviced not later than ten weeks after calving.
  Cows are observed regularly for signs of oestrus (heat) when they mount each other. Tail painting helps the farmer with heat detection.
  Dairy cows should be inseminated with top quality AI bulls.
  Keep accurate records.


• Reproductive Efficiency
  This means the number of calves weaned per 100 cows served.
  To ensure good reproductive efficiency we:
  Feed cows well before mating
  Have good heat detection
  Have good care of the cow at calving time
  Cull older cows


• Tail Painting
  The use of emulsion paint is common in Irish dairy herds.
  Cows are painted with a bright colour (every 7 to 8 days) to help the farmer to detect the cow in heat.
  The paint will be broken or rubbed off by other rising cows or servicing bull.
  The colour is then changed, so that repeats of heats can again be detected and the repeat service once again recorded.
  This practice reduces the need for round the clock observation and the detection of cows who may have short (2 hours) standing heat periods. Tail paint when dry.


• Advantages of Artificial Insemination
  Longer period for inserting the sperm into the vagina so success at fertilisation is greater.
  Better use of semen produced by the bull as it can be diluted to service a number of cows.
  The life of the bulls is prolonged by refrigeration of the semen.
  The need to feed a bull is not required.
  The best beef and dairy bulls are available to every farmer.
  Less risk of disease transfer.


• Managing the Dairy Cow
  Mid and Late Lactation
  Grazing highly digestible young leafy ryegrass in a rotational system e.g. paddock grazing.
  oNear the end of lactation cows milk yield reduces and they are dried off two months before calving.
  Drying cows off for this period gives the cow a chance to build up energy for calving, clear up any infection in her udder with the use of antibiotics and at this point we steam her up.
  Steaming up is feeding the cow on an increasing plane of nutrition coming up to calving. Start with 2kg of concentrates per day 10 weeks from calving building up to 6kg at calving.
  It is done because during this period the size of the calf in the womb is increasing rapidly.


• Replacement Heifers
  Cows need to be replaced at a rate 20% every year.
  Farmers replace cows for a number of reasons:
  Poor milk yield due to age
  Disease, especially mastitis
  Injuries, especially to feet
  Fertility problems
  Grading Up – this refers to replacing older poor yielding cows with the daughters of higher yielding cows thus increasing overall milk yield.


• Rearing Replacement Heifers
  A replacement heifer should be bred from a high yielding cow and an AI bull.
  Born in February and should weigh 72.5kg by April.
  Grazes on top quality perennial ryegrass for the summer and weighs 200kg by November.
  For the first winter is fed on silage and some concentrates to ensure she meets her next target weight of 300kg on the first of May.
  It is essential that she meets this target weight before she is put in calf. If not she will be too small when calving and never reach her full potential milk yield.

 

• She is usually put in calf to an easy calving beef bull such as Aberdeen Angus or Hereford. This is to ensure she does not have a difficult calving that might affect future production.
  By the end of her second summer she should weigh 450kg.
  She is fed good quality silage and steamed up on concentrates in her second winter. This ensures she weighs 500-525kg at calving.
  She is not fully grown at this stage and must be fed extremely well in early lactation to account for maintenance, milk production and growth.


• Economic Breeding Index
  EBI: A single figure profit index given in euros of profit per lactation for the animal’s progeny compared to an average dairy cow.
  Developed by Teagasc and the Irish Cattle Breeding Federation.
  Helps farmers to identify dam and sire lines that would be most profitable in their dairy herd.


• Diseases of Cows
  Grass Tetany (Hypomagnesaemia)
  occurs in the first few weeks of lush green growth. It is due to a low level of magnesium in the blood, resulting from a low level in the grass.
  Symptoms usually include excitement, twitching of muscles, staggering and death.
  To prevent include calcined magnesite in the diet of the cow
  Milk Fever (Hypocalcaemia)
  Occurs immediately after calving and is caused by low levels of calcium due to sudden onset of lactation.
  Symptoms include nervousness, inability to stand and death.


• Brucellosis
  It is caused by the bacteria Brucella abortus and can be transferred from animal to animal
  Symptoms include the foetus being aborted between the 5th and 8th month of pregnancy. Cow loses weight before calving. A discharge is given off and should be reported to the vet as soon as possible.


• Mastitis
  It is the inflammation of the udder and is caused by bacteria. It affects milking or dry cows.
  Symptoms in dairy cows include watery milk, clots or strings, blood and sometimes pus.
  Symptoms in dry cows include swelling of hocks, lameness and discharge.
  Prevention includes hygiene at milking, the practice of stripping the cows and teat dipping.
  As it occurs in older cows the younger ones should be milked first.
  Cows known to have mastitis should be milked last on their own. Treated with antibiotics and cows with a recurring problem should be culled.


• Diseases of Calves
  Scour (Diarrhoea)
  Two Types:
  1.Nutritional Scour
  –Calf ingests too much milk in one feed
  –A “milk ball” is formed in the stomach causing digestive upset
  –To treat take the calf off milk and put on electrolytes (sugars and salts) for 24 hours
  –To prevent feed at regular intervals and don't overfeed
  2.Bacterial Scour
  –Caused by poor hygiene and is highly contagious
  –Isolate calf immediately and call vet
  –Vet will prescribe antibiotics and put calf on electrolytes
  –To prevent ensure good hygiene


• Virus Pneumonia
  Highly infectious and usually there is secondary infection by bacteria also
  Spread of infection is encouraged by poor ventilation
  Coughing, fever and death
  To treat call the vet
  To prevent have good ventilation and check calves regularly for signs of disease


• Naval Ill (Joint Ill)
  Caused by bacteria entering the calves’ unhealed navel
  Results from bad hygiene at calving time
  Swollen naval, joints and can lead to blood poisoning and death
  Treat using antibiotics
  To prevent treat the calves’ naval with iodine when it is born

Dairy Breeds, Milk Composition and Production

Dairy Breeds, Milk Composition and Production

• National Importance
  The dairy industry not only provides milk and milk products but also beef animals for the beef industry.


• National Importance
  At the end of 2003 there were 1.1 million dairy cows in Ireland
  Milk deliveries per cow averaged 4,808kg in the year 2003
  Approximately 10% of Irish milk output is consumed domestically in liquid form.
  The rest is used in the manufacture of dairy products (butter, cheese, yoghurt, etc.), of which about 84% is exported at a value of €1.543 billion per annum.


• Breeds -Dairy breed-produce milk only :hole stein, Jersey

Dual purpose breed -produce milk and beef animal:
Friesein
Dairy shorthorn
Beef breed-produce beef animal:
Hereford
Limousin
Begian blue

• Most Irish dairy cows are Friesian because they have high milk yield and supply reasonable beef calves.
  More and more dairy farmers are using Holstein bulls because of their very high milk yields


• Dairy Breeds
  Holstein-Friesian:
  highest milkproducing
  cow.
  Large animal that
  originates from
  the Netherlands.
  Ayrshire:
  Scottish breed.
  Easy calving


• Jersey: originates
  from the Channel
  Islands. Produces a
  lower milk yield but
  high butterfat
  content.
  Jersey x Holstein-
  Friesian cross:
  demonstrates hybrid
  vigour.


• Composition of Milk
  Water 87.5%
  Fat 3.5% – 4.0%
  Solids non fat (SNF)
  oProteins (casein, albumin, globulin) 3.3% - 3.6%
  oSugars (lactose, glucose) 4.6%
  oMinerals (mainly calcium and phosphorus)


• The Cow’s Udder
  The milk-producing cells are called the alveolus. These cells have a duct that allows milk to drain out.
  These ducts empty milk into the gland cistern.
  The gland cistern is connected to the teat cistern.
  The udder has a rich blood supply to help it synthesise milk.


• Milking
  ‘Milk let-down’ is triggered by the hormone oxytocin.
  Any disruption during the milking routine can trigger the release of the hormone adrenaline in the cow. Adrenaline works against oxytocin by blocking the release of it and preventing it reaching the udder.


• Lactation
  Lactation means “milking period” and it begins as soon as a cow has a calf.
  The aim is to have a calf/cow/year.
  A cow will go dry and stop giving milk 2 months before calving. This means that cows milk for 10 months of the year and are dry for 2 months.
  Therefore the standard lactation of dairy cows is 305 days (10 months).


• Colostrum
  After the birth the cow produces colostrum.
  Colostrum is darker in colour and much creamier than normal milk.
  Feeding colostrum to a newborn calf (or any newborn animal) has a number of benefits:
  oAntibodies in the colostrum protect the newborn against disease.
  oThe ability of the calf to absorb these antibodies is greatest in the first 24 hours.
  oColostrum is high in easily digestible nutrients.
  oIt has a laxative effect, helping clean out the digestive system of the calf.


• Lactation Yield
  Lactation yield is the amount of milk a cow gives in 305 days.
  It is measured in kgs not litres because it is the solids in milk that we are interested not the water.
  Lactation yield of individual cows can vary greatly but in general yields are increasing in Ireland due to selection within the breed.
  This means picking the best cows and breeding replacements heifers from them.


• Lactation curve
  Plots the milk production of a dairy cow over the course of her lactation.
  Milk production increases from the start of lactation until the peak yield 4–6 weeks after calving.
  Peak yield will depend on lactation number and the diet of the cow.
  After peak yield is reached her milk yield will decline.


• Factors Affecting Milk Yield
  Age: milk yield rises with age of cow.
  Frequency of milking: increasing frequency of milking increases milk yield.
  Drying off: milk yield is reduced if drying off period is less than 40–60 days


• Factors Affecting Milk Composition
  Breed: milk composition varies greatly between purebred and crossbred dairy breeds.
  Animal feed: good grassland increases fat and protein yields in milk.
  Stage of lactation: the percentage of fat, lactose and protein of milk varies with stage of lactation. The percentage of fat and protein is highest immediately after calving.


• Age: the percentage of fat and protein content of milk decreases with the dairy cow’s age.
  Disease: infections of the udder, particularly mastitis, affect milk composition. The percentages of fat, protein and lactose all decrease.


• Frequency of Milking
  Milking empties the udder and stimulates the milk secreting cells (alveoli) to produce more milk.
  Cows milked 3 times a day will give more milk than cows milked twice.
  Cows are milked twice a day because the extra milk you get from milking them more often is not worth the labour of getting them in.


• Milking Interval
  Ideally cows should be milked every 12 hours because this puts less stress on the animal.
  This means a very long working day for the farmer so cows are generally milked at 14 and 10 hour periods.
  Whatever the interval it is important to keep it regular as cows are creatures of habit.


• Factors affecting Yield and Composition of Milk
  Breed ( SNF lower in lower genetic animals)
  Stage of lactation (SNF lower at end of lactation)
  Age of cow
  Feeding levels and quality of food (SNF lower in underfed cows)
  The efficiency of milking (a definite programme)
  The length of time between milkings (regularity)
  Time of year (lower in winter time)


• Milk Hygiene and Milk Testing
  Total bacterial count (TBC): Used as an indicator of hygiene on a farm. TBC can be high as a result of mastitis, dirty milking machinery or failure to properly cool the milk.
  Somatic cell count (SCC): A measure of the health of the udder. Somatic cells are white blood cells. These increase if the udder has mastitis.


• Milk Hygiene and Milk Testing
  Antibiotics: Must be absent from milk at all times as antibiotics interfere with the processing of the milk. Delvo test is carried out on raw milk to identify the presence of antibiotics.
  Sediment: Milk must be free from sediment and particles. The udder and the teat should be cleaned prior to milking and the milk filters must be changed regularly.


• Testing of Milk
  Creameries test milk for a number of different things.
  Total bacteria count (TBC) is a measure of the amount of bacteria in a ml of milk.
  Somatic Cell Count (SCC) is a measure of the amount cells that fight infection.
  The milk is tested for antibiotics.
  The percentage of fat and protein are measured.
  The litmus and delvo tests are used by creameries


• Husbandry and Management to Maintain High Hygiene Standards
  Maintain clean housing, cubicles and dairy parlour.
  Wash cow’s udder and teat.
  Check for mastitis.
  Use dry-cow treatment at drying off.
  Filter milk.
  Wash bulk tank and milk line regularly.
  Ensure proper cooling of milk.


• Typical Dairy Cow
  Weighs 40kg at birth
  Reaches puberty at 1 year old when she is 250kg
  Oestrus Cycle (reproductive cycle) is 21 days and oestrus (heat) lasts for 18 hours
  Gestation period (length of pregnancy) is 283 days

Lamb Production and Husbandry

Lamb Production and Husbandry

• Breeding Management
  We are trying to produce as many fast growing good conformation lambs as possible.
  We aim for 200 lambs sold for every 100 ewes mated.
  We use prolific crossbred ewes which also have good mothering ability. Diet also plays a part in the amount of lambs produced.
  Rams are meat breeds such as Texel and Suffolk.


• Birth, Growth Rates and Puberty
  Lambs weigh 3 – 5kg at birth.
  They are slaughtered at 30 – 40kg depending on breed and age.
  Ewe lambs reach puberty at about 40kg


• Reproduction
  Sheep are seasonally polyoestrous. This means they only come into heat during a certain period of the year, September to February.
  The oestrous cycle is 17 days and oestrous lasts for 36 hours.
  The gestation period is 149 days.


• Synchronised Breeding
  Traditionally rams go in with ewes in early September and stay there for 6 – 8 weeks. This leads to a very drawn out lambing season.
  Oestrous can be synchronised artificially leading to shorter breeding season and therefore compact lambing which eases flock management.
  Progesterone impregnated sponges are placed in the ewes’ vagina and left for 12 – 16 days. This prolongs the life of the corpus luteum.
  When the sponges are removed all at the same time the sheep come into oestrous all at the same time within a few days.


• Breeding out of Season
  This is breeding sheep in July/August to ensure lambs are born early enough to have them ready for slaughter for the Easter market when prices are highest.
  Place sponges in vagina the same as for synchronised breeding but when they are removed give the sheep an injection of another hormone called Pregnant Mare Serum Gonadotrophin (PMSG).
  If synchronised ram ratio to sheep is 1:10 but if not synchronised it is 1:40.


• Breeding Systems in Ireland
  •Two breeding systems are employed: early lamb and mid-season lamb.


• Flushing
  The farmer achieves this by stocking ewes heavily (25-30/ha) on bare pasture sometime between weaning and mating.
  Then 3-4 weeks before the mating season they are stocked lightly ( 15-18/ha) on better pasture.
  Flushing leads to:
  –More eggs released at ovulation i.e. more twins and triplets
  –More regular heat periods
  –Higher conception rates i.e. less barren ewes
  –Better attachment of the embryo to the uterine wall


• Ram Effect
  Some ewe breeds can be encouraged to ovulate six weeks earlier than normal by the sudden introduction of the ram.
  Rams produce pheromones which can stimulate the oestrus cycle in the ewes.
  Only successful with some breeds and if the ram and ewes are kept 2 km apart for six weeks before mating.
  Ram effect can help synchronise breeding without sponging.


• Preparation for Mating/Flushing
  Ewes should be in BCS of 3.5-4.0 at the beginning of the mating season.
  This will result in high conception rates.
  Flushing ewes involves having them improving condition during the mating season. In other words bring the ewes from a low to a high plane of nutrition.


• Mating
  Ram should be in good condition, feet should be pared and excess wool around eyes and sexual organs should be clipped.
  The normal ratio of ram:sheep is 1:40 but this should be reduced to 1:10 if sheep are synchronised.
  Keep accurate breeding records so we know what lambing dates will be.
  We do this by putting a marker dye on the ram’s chest so he marks each ewe as he mounts her. This is called a raddling harness and the dye is changed every 17 days to pick up repeat services.
  Ewes that come into oestrus repeatedly should be culled.


• Mating to Lambing
  Continue grazing sheep on good quality grass for 3 – 4 weeks after mating is finished to ensure proper embryo development and attachment to the uterine wall.
  In mid pregnancy (weeks5 – 15) ewes can be fed on a moderate plane of nutrition as they only need to maintain their weight. Keep on grass and when it runs out feed silage or hay.
  75% of foetal growth occurs in the last 2 months of pregnancy and so hay or silage should be supplemented with concentrates (15% CP).
  Steaming up involves feeding twin bearing sheep 0.1kg of concentrates per day 7 weeks from lambing and building this up to 0.7kg per day at lambing. This helps to prevent twin lamb disease (pregnancy toxaemia).


• Housing
  Ewes should be housed before lambing for a number of reasons:
  –Land is rested
  –Easy inspection of ewes
  –Less chance of dog attacks
  –Easier to feed concentrates
  –Easier to vaccinate
  –Warmer for lambs


• Lambing
  Keep accurate breeding records so you know when sheep are going to lamb.
  Have sheep scanned earlier so you know which have twins or triplets.
  Inspect regularly during lambing and get veterinary assistance if there is any serious problem.
  Small or weak lambs must be carefully minded. Feeding colostrum and maintaining body temperature are vital. Chilled lambs are heated up using an infrared lamp or a hot box. In severe cases a glucose injection may be needed.
  A fostering crate can be used to put a triplet on a ewe that had just one lamb.


• Rearing Lambs
  Growth rate of lambs depends greatly on milk production of ewe.
  The high feeding level from before lambing should be continued after lambing.
  Feed silage and concentrates (15% CP) until spring grass is available.
  After a time milk is less important and grass and concentrates are more important in the diet of the lambs.
  Lambs being produced for the Easter market must be creep fed better grass and concentrates.


• Weaning and Post-Weaning
  Lambs and ewes are separated for a period of 7 days, during which time the ewes go dry.
  During this time the ewes should be examined for mastitis and if they have it cull them.
  Lambs are put on good quality grazing to keep them growing well while ewes are put on bare pastures until it is time to flush them again.


• Diseases of Sheep
  Pregnancy Toxaemia (twin lamb disease)
  –Caused by inadequate nutrition in late pregnancy.
  –Only in ewes with twins or triplets
  –Ewes try to mobilise body fat reserves which causes liver malfunction
  –To prevent it sheep should be steamed up.
  –Concentrates must be fed at this time because the rumen is too small (due to foetal growth) to take in enough bulky feeds to meet her requirements.


• Diseases of Sheep
  Chill/Starvation of Lambs
  –Most common cause of death in young lambs
  –Caused by insufficient intake of colostrum and/or exposure to severe weather conditions
  –Common in mountain production as lambing usually takes place outdoors
  –To prevent:
  •Feed ewe well in late pregnancy to ensure healthy active lamb and good milk supply
  •Supervise lambing
  •Ensure intake of colostrum within one hour of birth
  •Lamb indoors


• –To Treat:
  •Starved lambs should be fed colostrum immediately, use a stomach tube if necessary
  •Chilled lambs should be dried, warmed and fed
  •Place in a hot box or under an infrared lamp
  •Severely chilled lambs (<37OC) should be given a sterile injection of glucose into the body cavity


• Diseases of Sheep
  Clostridial Diseases:
  –Soil borne bacteria that cause a variety of diseases such as lamb dysentery, pulpy kidney, tetanus, braxy, blackleg, black disease.
  –To prevent vaccinate ewes two weeks before lambing.
  –Lambs born to vaccinated ewes acquire some disease resistance from colostrum


• Diseases of Sheep
  Foot Rot
  –Highly contagious disease caused by Fusiformis bacteria
  –First sign is scald between toes which spreads to sole of foot and up under horn causing horn to separate from tissue
  –Severe lameness
  –Commonly occurs in lowland sheep production on wet soils and in unhygienic winter housing.
  –To prevent:
  •Pare hooves to expose infected tissue and footbath to kill the bacteria. Use a 10% solution of formalin or copper sulphate.


• –To Treat
  •Animal should be isolated.
  •Carefully pare foot and treat with an antibiotic aerosol spray.
  •Keep separate from the rest of the flock until cured.
  •If there is a known problem all sheep should be moved to clean pasture and the infected pasture should be rested for at least 14 days which is the lifespan of the Fusiformis bacteria.


• Diseases of Sheep
  
  
  
  1. Orf
  
  
  
  –A viral disease which is highly infectious
  –A zoonose
  –Wear gloves and protective clothing when handling infected sheep
  –Causes scabby mouth and can be fatal
  –To prevent vaccinate ewes before lambing and lambs when they are four weeks old.


• Diseases of Sheep
  
  
  
  1. Fly strike (Maggots)
  
  
  
  –External parasitic disease caused by maggots (larvae) of green bottle and blue bottle flies which are active from May to September.
  –They are attracted to dirty fleece where they lay eggs that hatch in a few days.
  –The maggots feed on skin and flesh for a few days before falling onto ground to complete life cycle.
  –Infected animals fail to graze or thrive properly.
  –Animals may die from blood poisoning
  –To prevent (a) have good stomach worm control (b) clip (dag) dirty fleece (c) dip sheep with a summer dip


• Diseases of Sheep
  Sheep Scab
  –Highly infectious external parasitic disease caused by mange mite, Psoroptes ovis. Notifiable disease.
  –Symptoms are nervousness, nibbling and biting at affected area, scabs, wool loss, death.
  –Mange mites are active from October to March, they bite and pierce the skin forming swellings that burst and form scabs.
  –To prevent dip sheep between September 15 and January 31 with a DAFF approved dip.


• Diseases of Sheep
  Some other diseases of sheep are:
  –Cobalt pine caused by a lack of cobalt.
  –Swayback caused by a lack of copper.
  –Stomach and Intestinal worms as with cattle
  –Liver fluke
  –Naval ill/joint ill

 

Sheep Breeds and Production

Sheep Breeds and Production

• National Importance
  Sheep production accounts for about 4 – 6% of agricultural production in Ireland.
  Wool, milk and cheese production are of minor importance. The main product of the industry is sheepmeat.
  We export sheepmeat to France, Germany, Italy, Belgium and the Middle East.
  Lamb is slaughtered at age 3-12 months and is leaner than hogget mutton which is slaughtered over 12 months.
• Sheep Production in Ireland
  Sheep production is divided into mountain or hill sheep and lowland sheep.

 

• Blackface Mountain
  Horned, black or black and white faces and legs. Small carcass.
  Hardy. Good mothers
• Wicklow Cheviot
  Polled, white wool, white head and legs.
  Mountain breed but not as hardy as Blackface Mountain. Good mothers.
• Galway-Only native Irish breed. Long white wool, polled. Good growth rate.
• Belclare Improver
  Developed by Teagasc from Galway breed, more prolific than the Galway.
• Border Leicester
  Large long wooled breed, upright ears, very prolific breed.
• Texel
  Polled, white head, short ears, no wool on face or legs.
  Excellent carcass conformation. Used as terminal sire.
• Suffolk
  Polled, short white good quality wool.
  Black head and legs
  Very fast growing and good conformation.
  Used as terminal sire.
• Breeding Strategies
  Mountain sheep farmers use ewes of a mountain breed and cross them with rams of the same breed. Lambs are used as replacements or sold to the Italian market as they like a small carcass.
  Hill sheep farmers use “cast” ewes off the mountain and cross them with prolific breeds such as the Border Leicester to produce crossbreds.
  Lowland sheep farmers use these crossbred ewes and Suffolk or Texel rams. This results in a large numbers of good conformation lambs ready for slaughter.
• Replacement Ewes
  Most of these criteria can be applied to the selection of any breeding female:
  –Health of the ewe
  –Body condition score
  –Conformation
  –Good mouth and teeth
  –Sound feet and legs
  –Good udder with functioning teats
  –Prolific ewe
• Selecting Breeding Rams
  The same criteria can be applied to the selection of any breeding male:
  –Type of breed
  –Pedigree and performance tested
  –Conformation
  –Body condition score
  –Sound feet and legs
  –Mouth and teeth
  –Age of ram

Catch Crops

Catch Crops

• Catch Crops

Fast-growing crops grown between two main crops when land would otherwise lie idle.
Used primarily for animal feed.
Additional winter fodder.

• Advantages of Catch Crops
  Fast growing
  High yielding
  Additional winter fodder
  Reduce winter feed costs, less concentrates required
  Break crop between grass and cereals
  Help prevent nitrogen leaching
  Some crops have high protein content
• Disadvantages of Catch Crops
  Labour intensive if strip grazed or zero grazed
  Low in fibre
  Attacked by pests and diseases
  Risk of poaching the land if grazed in situ during wet weather
  Iodine deficiency can occur when livestock are fed some catch crops
• Cultivation of Stubble Turnip
  Soil suitability and sowing:
  –Free draining loam with a pH of 6.5 or more.
  –The soil is ploughed and harrowed.
  –The seeds are sown using a direct drill.
  Rotation:
  –Stubble turnip is vulnerable to club root caused by a soil-borne fungus.
  –Stubble turnip must not be grown in the same field for more than one year in three.
• Cultivation of Stubble Turnip
  Fertiliser:
  –Stubble turnip requires 140 kg/ha of nitrogen, 35 kg/ha of phosphorus and 35 kg/ha of potassium.
  Pests and diseases:
  –Flea beetles are a common pest of stubble turnip. Spray with a suitable insecticide.
  –Slugs are also a problem.
• Feeding livestock
  It should be introduced gradually into the diet of sheep and cattle.
  Strip grazing using an electric fence minimises waste.
  Cattle and sheep must be fed hay or silage with stubble turnip to ensure proper rumen function.
  Run back must be provided for animals.
• Kale
  Kale has a longer growing season than stubble turnip.
  Reaches maximum yield after six months of growth.
• Cultivation
  Soil cultivation and sowing:
  –Free-draining loam or sandy loam
  –pH of 6.0 to 7.0
  –Plough and power-harrow to produce a fine seedbed
  –Kale can be broadcast or sown by direct-drilling
  –Sow at a depth of 10 mm
  Rotation:
  –Prone to club root – 1 in 5 year rotation
• Cultivation
  Fertiliser requirements:
  –Nitrogen is applied at sowing at a rate of 75–85 kg/ha.
  Pests and diseases:
  –Susceptible to flea beetle and aphid attack. Spray with a suitable insecticide.
  –Slug pellets should be used if slugs are a problem.
• Feeding Livestock
  Strip grazing using an electric fence, or zero grazing to animals indoors minimises waste.
  Excessive intake of kale can lead to anaemia.
  Kale is low in some minerals, e.g. iodine and phosphorus. Mineral supplements should be provided.
  Hay and silage must also be fed.

Sugar Beet

• Sugar Beet
  Sugar beet belongs to the Chenopodaceae family.
  It is a biennial which means it takes two years to produce a flowering head. It produces a food store in the first year which is the root.
  The average percentage sugar is 16% but this will be higher if the plant received a lot of sunshine.
  Beet tops are left in the field after harvesting but they must be wilted for a couple of days before they can be grazed. This is because when fresh they contain oxalic acid which causes diarrhoea (scouring)
• By-products of Sugar Beet
  Molasses: A black syrup left over from sugar production which is used as an additive in animal feeds and is also used as an additive in silage production.
  Beet tops: Tops are cut from the plant during harvest and can be used to feed cattle and sheep.
  Beet pulp: Dried and shredded remains of the root which can be used as animal feed.
• Cultivation of Sugar Beet
  Soil suitability
  –Deep, well drained soils are needed for sugar beet production.
  –Compacted soils lead to forked roots.
  –Sugar beet also needs a pH of 6.5–7.0.
• Climate
  –Sugar beet is not frost resistant and best suited to a temperate climate.
  –Sunshine is also needed for sucrose production.
  –Sugar beet was traditionally grown in south-east Ireland
• Cultivation of Sugar Beet
  Preparation of seedbed
  –Land should be autumn ploughed and rotovated in spring for production of a fine seedbed.
  Time, rate and method of sowing
  –Sow in spring to avoid frost damage. This also allows for a long growing season.
  –Seed is sown at the rate of 100 000 /ha with a precision seeder.
• Fertilisers
  Sugar beet fertilisers contain Boron (B) and Sodium (Na).
  A lack of boron causes heart rot/crown rot in sugar beet.
  A lack of manganese causes speckled yellows in sugar beet
• Weed Control and Rotation
  Weed control
  –Weeds in the crop can be controlled by spraying a herbicide twice before full leaf cover.
  Rotation
  –Beet should not be grown more than one year in three in a cereal-grassland rotation.
  –Rotation can be used to control the beet cyst nematode, the main pest of sugar beet.
• Diseases, Pests and Weed Control
  Virus yellows
  –Transmitted by aphids
  –Spray aphicides in spring and summer to reduce populations and control the spread of the viral disease
  Rhizomania
  –Caused by Beet Necrotic Yellow Vein Virus (BNYVV)
  –Stunts root production
  –Increases root hair production
  –Prevents N uptake
  –Reduces sugar yield by 80%
  –Sow resistant seed varieties to slow spread of the virus
• Harvest, Yield and Storage
  Sugar beet is harvested between September and December using a sugar beet harvester.
  Tops are removed and left in the field, roots are transferred to a trailer.
  Roots are stored in clamps, covered in straw to prevent frost damage.
  Yield:
  –40 t/ha roots
  –25 t/ha tops
  Beet tops are left in the field and must be wilted before feeding to cattle as they contain oxalic acid which causes scour. Wilting reduces the acid concentration.

Tillage Crops

Tillage Crops

• Location Of Tillage Crops
  Mainly in South and East of country for two reasons:-
  1.Climate in these regions is more suitable to tillage i.e. less rain which allows early spring cultivation and little difficulty harvesting crops.
  2.Soils more suitable to tillage i.e. more fertile and free-draining.
• Winter v Spring Sown Crops
  Winter variety seeds:
  –Frost resistant
  –Sown September to November
  –Harvested mid-July onwards
  –Longer growing season
  –Higher yield due to longer growing season
• Spring variety seeds:
  –Not frost resistant
  –Sown February to April
  –Harvested August onwards
  –Shorter growing season
  –Lower yield due to shorter growing season
• Advantages of Sowing Winter Variety Cereals
  Labour can be spread over the year, particularly in mixed farming systems where calving/lambing takes place in spring.
  Winter varieties have a higher yield than spring varieties due to their longer growing season.
• Advantages of Sowing Winter Variety Cereals
  Harvesting takes place earlier for winter varieties in good weather conditions. Losses of spring varieties may result when harvesting in poor autumn weather.
  Poor weather in spring may delay sowing of spring varieties. This can delay germination, establishment and harvest of the crop and result in a lower yield than a winter variety.
• Crop Rotation
  This is the growing of crops in a definite sequence.
  It helps to control certain pests and diseases that live in the soil or on crop residues. It can do this because some pests and diseases are specific to certain crops and growing a different crop the following year will starve the parasite and it will die.
  It helps to maintain soil structure and organic matter. This occurs where there is a period of grassland incorporated into the rotation which builds up structure and organic matter for the cereal crops that will follow.
• Weed, Disease and Pest Control
  These can be controlled as follows:-
  –Indirectly – here our aim is not kill the weed, disease or pest but something that we do helps to reduce the problem indirectly.
  –Biologically – use other living organisms to control ones that are causing a problem.
  –Directly – this is the use of chemicals to directly kill the problem.
• Indirect Control
  1.Crop rotation
  2.Growth encouragement
  3.Sowing resistant crop varieties
  4.Harvesting without delay
  5.Stubble cleaning
• Biological Control
  Involves introducing a predator, parasite or infectious agent.
  Red spider mite could be introduced to kill whitefly.
  Ladybird could be introduced to kill greenfly.
• Direct Control
  Herbicides kill plants.
  Fungicides kill fungi.
  Pesticides kill pests.
  Insecticides kill insects.
• Herbicides
  Can be selective and only kill certain plants or non-selective (total) that kill all plants.
  Selective herbicides are used where you want to kill weeds but not damage a crop.
  Herbicides have 3 modes of action:-
  –Contact – kills the part of the plant it lands on but not the root. Used on annual weeds.
  –Translocated – absorbed by plant and kills root. Used on annuals and perennials.
  –Residual – applied to soil and kill any germinating plants for a period of time. Kills annuals and perennials.
• Fungicides
  3 modes of action:-
  1.Eradicant fungicides kill fungal infections at point where they are applied.
  2.Protective fungicides protect plant from future attack of a fungus at the point where they are applied.
  3.Systemic fungicides are absorbed by the plant and travel to all parts of the plant. They kill existing fungal infections and protect from future attack.
• Pesticides
  Usually sprayed on crop.
  Pest is killed on contact with pesticide or by eating leaf sprayed with pesticide.
  Some pesticides applied as baits e.g. slug pellets or fumigants e.g. in a grain bin.
  Care must be taken when using pesticides as they can persist in the crop or on the soil and they are toxic. This may cause harm to consumer of crop and also damages wildlife.
• Seed Certification
  Most seed sown in Ireland is certified by the government’s DAFF.
  This seed is guaranteed the following:
  1.Minimum germination rate of 85%
  2.Minimum purity of 98%
  3.Free from wild oat seeds
  4.Treated with an insecticide/fungicide.
  It ensures (a) better yield, (b) better weed, disease and pest control and (c) easier to sell the seeds that are produced.

Grassland- Conserving Grass as Silage or Hay

Conserving Grass as Silage or Hay

• Pattern of Grass Growth
  When there is not enough grass supplement it with concentrates and silage.
  When there is too much grass conserve the extra for feeding in the winter

 

• Scientific Principle involved in Conserving Grass
  The general principle in conserving grass is to stop or slow down the activity of the bacteria that spoil or rot the grass.
  Silage:
  –Controlled fermentation - reduce the pH to a level that the bacteria cannot work at.
  Hay:
  –Dehydration - dry the grass out so much that the bacteria cannot work.
• Heading Out and Ensiling
  Heading out: This is when half of the grass plants have produced seed heads.
  Ensiling: This is the process of storing grass or another crop in a silo, clamp or pit for preservation as silage.
• When do we Cut?
  Silage
  –Cut in May when the grass is leafy and highly digestible stage.
  –Ensures a good quality winter feed.
  Hay
  –Cannot cut in May as the weather is not good enough to dry the grass out.
  –Cut in June so quality is not as good as silage.
• Silage Making
  Pile grass up and remove the air by rolling it.
  Anaerobic bacteria begin to ferment the silage - turn the carbohydrates into acids which lowers the pH and preserves the grass.
  Good Silage
  –High level of soluble carbohydrates (sugars and starch)
  –Anaerobic bacteria (Streptococcus & Lactobacillus)
  –Lactic acid
  Bad Silage
  –Low levels of carbohydrates
  –Clostridium
  –Butyric acid
• High Carbohydrate Levels
  Do not cut when wet.
  Allow crop to wilt (dry out in field).
  Use double-chop or precision-chop harvesting equipment.
  Add molasses (carbohydrate rich) on very lush grass.
• Cutting Date
  Ensure high Dry Matter Digestibility (DMD)
  Half of plants have seed heads showing ( 25th May).
  Every day after this there is a reduction in DMD
• Seven Steps to Good Silage
  1.Cut grass up into small pieces.
  2.Transport to clean pit.
  3.Apply an additive.
  4.Remove clumps of grass to lessen risk of air pockets.
  5.Roll grass repeatedly to remove air.
  6.Cover with two sheets of heavy-gauge polythene sheeting and place FYM, tyres etc on top to seal pit.
  7.Tighten up sides of sheeting at regular intervals as pit subsides to ensure no air enters.
• Additives in Silage Production
  Acids: Lower the pH of silage inhibiting fermentation process and inhibiting bacterial activity.
  Molasses: Increases carbohydrate concentration in the pit, providing extra sugar for fermentation process.
  Bacterial inoculants: Speed up fermentation process and reduce pH within the pit.
  Enzymes: Break down grass fibres. This provides additional carbohydrate in the form of sugar for fermentation
• Additives
  Used when the carbohydrate level of the grass is low.
  Some farmers always use them for safety.
  Two types:
  –Stimulants
  –Inhibitors
• Additives
  Stimulants
  Source of carbohydrate
  Molasses
  Applied to grass in the pit in layers (10 l/tonne)
  Inhibitors
  Source of acid to lower pH
  Sulphuric or propionic
  Applied during cutting of grass (3-5 l/tonne)

Storing Silage
Usually stored in a pit or clamp.
Must ensure that the effluent can be collected safely.
Other option is big round-bale silage where the grass is cut, wilted, made into bales and wrapped with plastic to make them air tight.
Bales are more expensive but are more convenient especially if only a small amount of silage is being made.

• Round Bales
  Advantages:
  Quality can be as good as pit silage
  Ideal for surplus grass – small amounts can be made
  Excess bales can be sold
  Cheaper for small farmer where pit cannot be justified
  No need for effluent storage facilities
  Disadvantages:
  High unit costs
  Prone to damage if not handled properly
  Plastic waste disposal costs
• Silage Effluent
  Liquid that seeps from silage after it is stored.
  It is acidic and can cause serious pollution so it must be stored carefully.
  Usually stored in underground tanks and spread on the land with slurry.
  The wetter the silage when it is made the more effluent that there will be.
  Wilting silage reduces the amount of effluent produced and increases carbohydrate level of silage.
• Good Quality Silage
  ph 4
  Greater than 20% dry matter
  70 – 75% digestible
  See table page 254 to see characteristics of good and bad silage.
• Haymaking
  Close field in mid April and apply fertiliser.
  Cut grass as close to June 1 as possible when digestibility is high.
  We are trying to dry the grass to 20% moisture so only cut when dry weather is expected.
  After cutting shake out the grass with a tedder to fluff it up and allow it to dry out quicker.
  Continue to ted the hay 2 to 3 times a day until it is dry enough to be baled. (Be careful not to damage the grass by tedding it too roughly)
  Bale the hay and bring it into sheds ASAP.
• Haymaking
   Rotary mower cuts the grass
  and leaves it in rows.
   The tedder shakes out the grass
  allowing it to dry out fast.
  Grass should be tedded twice
  and as soon as possible after
  cutting.
   The baler collects the grass
  and makes it into bales which
  should be moved into storage
  as soon as possible.

Sowing and Reseeding Grassland

Sowing and Reseeding Grassland

• Reasons for Low Productivity
  Weed infestation
  Low ryegrass content - high content of poor quality grasses
  Lack of clover
  Animal activity – poaching
• Benefits of Reseeding
  1.Improves grass quality
  2.Improves silage quality
  3.Increases meat and milk production
  4.Higher output allows increased stocking density on land
  5.Better response to N fertilisers
  6.Longer grazing season reduces the need for winter fodder, reducing overall costs
  7.Excess grass as a result of increased productivity could be cut for silage and sold
• Methods of Sowing
  1.Direct sowing (very reliable)
  2.Undersowing (complicated)
  3.Direct drilling (risky)
  4.Stitching-in (very risky)
• Direct sowing
  Sow in spring or autumn.
  Prepare a fine seedbed by ploughing and harrowing.
  Broadcast fertiliser (based on soil test results) and work into soil.
  Drill seed in 10cm drills at 2cm deep or broadcast and cover using chain harrow.
  Roll after sowing to give good soil/seed contact (supplies water and nutrients).
• Undersowing
  Used when sowing grass as part of a tillage rotation.
  Sow grass and spring cereal at the same time and allow both crops grow at same time.
  Grassland establishment begins when cereal crop is harvested.
  Must change the management of the cereal crop because of the presence of grass.
  May be competition between both crops.
• Direct Drilling
  Drill seeds into unploughed ground (stubble or existing grassland).
  Graze down existing grass sward and kill with herbicide.
  Drill in new grass, fertiliser and slug pellets.
  May be difficult for grass to establish.
  Used on shallow soils or heavy (wet) soils.
  Does not damage the structure of the soil.
• Stitching-in
  Always used on grassland.
  Exactly the same as direct drilling except existing sward is not killed with herbicide but grazed down heavily.
  Also used on soils that are difficult to plough or subject to poaching.
  May be very difficult for new grass to establish because of competition from old sward.
• Grassland Establishment
  Grassland establishment is the progression from newly emerged grass seedlings to thick, closely knit grassland.
  Very important because the development of roots help support animals and machinery.
  Most important factor is tillering.
  Best way to encourage tillering is to damage the main shoot of the grass plant by grazing or topping.
  In the beginning graze with light stock, such as calves or sheep, that will not damage the field.
• Weed Control
  Best way to control annual weeds is to encourage tillering of grass by grazing and/or topping.
  This will also help to control perennial weeds but the use of selective herbicides may also be necessary.
   Essential to encourage grass growth by maintaining a high level of soil fertility.

Grassland Management

Grassland Management

• Grazing Management
  Livestock Units: A livestock unit (LU) is a measurement of livestock grazing.
  One livestock unit (1 LU) is the equivalent of one dairy cow or one suckler cow.
  1 LU requires 12 tonnes of herbage annually.
  Livestock units can be used to determine the quantity of herbage needed on a farm annually.grassland is used for grazing and for silage and hay conservation for winter feed.
  Farmers must determine how much grass is required throughout the year for grazing and conservation.
  The farmer must apply the right amount of fertiliser to achieve that quantity of grass.
  The farmer tries to manage the grass in a way that ensures animals are always eating top quality herbage (young leafy grass).
• Types of Grazing
  Paddock grazing
  Strip grazing
  Set-stocking
  Block grazing
  Zero grazing
  Creep Grazing
  Mixed grazing
• Paddock Grazing
  The farm is divided up into 20-25 paddocks.
  The herd graze one paddock each day (the bigger the herd the bigger the paddocks).
  When each paddock is grazed nitrogen is applied.
  By the time the herd has grazed all the paddocks the first one is ready to be grazed again.
• Paddock Grazing
  Advantages:
  –Fresh, highly digestible leafy grass available every day for grazing
  –No grass is wasted
  –Excess grass can be saved as silage
  Disadvantages:
  –Expensive to set up
  –Roadways/access to each paddock must be created. Fencing and water supply are needed for each paddock
  –Can be difficult to cut for silage if paddocks are small
• Strip Grazing
  A movable electric fence is used to give stock a fresh strip of grass each day.
  Each strip is fertilised when grazed.
  A back fence is used to stop stock from grazing the grass as it re-grows.
• Strip Grazing
  Advantages:
  –Fresh, leafy grass available each day for grazing
  –Cheap
  –No wastage of grass as each strip is grazed bare
  –Grass is not damaged while re-growing as livestock cannot access it
  Disadvantages:
  –High labour is required to move livestock, fencing and a movable water supply each day
  –The use of a fixed water supply means part of the field has to be left as an access route, which cannot be grazed and can be damaged from use
• Set Stocking
  Stock are allowed to graze all of the grass all of the time.
  Little or no fertiliser is used.
  Associated with poor management and low stocking rates.
• Set Stocking
  Advantages:
  –Low-cost system with minimum fencing and water troughs needed
  –Less labour required
  –Poaching is minimised as livestock is not stocked densely on the land
  Disadvantages:
  –Early heading grasses not fully utilised in spring. At peak in summer, grass is not grazed efficiently
  –Grass is wasted and turns stemmy, allowing patchy, unpalatable grass to develop
• Block Grazing
  Also known as field-by-field grazing and is commonly used in Ireland.
  Stock are left in a field until all the grass is grazed which will vary depending on the size of the field.
  Stock are then moved to the next field and the previous one is fertilised.
• Block Grazing
  Advantages:
  –Cheaper than paddock grazing
  –Less fencing is needed
  –Less labour and less movement of animals required
  Disadvantages:
  –Grazing of blocks is not as efficient as paddock or strip grazing
• Mixed Grazing
  Cattle and sheep grazing the same area together.
  Can be used along with other types of grazing e.g. paddock grazing
  Both animals have higher growth rates.
  Sheep grazing close to the ground encourage tillering of grass.
  Sheep eat grass that cattle do not (around dung and urine patches) so there is better utilisation of the grass.
  Dung and urine of sheep and cattle is different and this leads to better recycling of nutrients.
• Zero Grazing
  Cattle are housed all year round.
  Fresh grass or other forage crops are cut and brought to the livestock, where they are fed indoors.
  Cattle do not graze the land.
  Common on the continent but not in Ireland.
• Zero Grazing
  Advantages:
  –Land is not poached by animals
  –Energy is not wasted by animals through movement
  –Access to fresh grass at all times means that the cows’ feed intake increases
  –All fields are accessible for grazing; distant fields can be used which may otherwise be inaccessible to livestock
  Disadvantages:
  –Very high cost system
• Creep Grazing
  A creep gate or gap in a fence is created to allow calves or lambs access to another field.
  This field is disease free and has fresh grass available for grazing.
  it can be used in conjunction with rotational grazing.
  The older animals cannot access the field and the young animals can return to their mothers to suckle.
  Sometimes concentrates are also available to the young stock.
• Leader-follower System
  This system is used in conjunction with rotational grazing where the young animals are grazed ahead of the older animals.
  Young animals are more selective and have access to fresh, leafy grass.
  The older animals will graze down the grass which remains.
  Young animals are always on clean grass which reduces their chances of picking up disease.
  Helps prevent stomach, intestinal and lung worms but does not reduce the incidence of liver fluke.
• Topping
  Grass is mowed to a height of 4 - 6cm.
  Topping cuts grass to the correct post-grazing height and encourages tillering.
  It is carried out post-grazing to remove any remaining grass that is left due to animals being selective grazers.
  Prevents grass from becoming stemmy and less digestible.
  It also help in the control of certain weeds.
• Tillering
  Happens in all grass plants.
  This is the development of side shoots in a plant from the base of the main shoot.
  The tillers remain attached to the main plant but have their own root system.
  The more side shoots a plant produces, the more productive the grass is.
  Tillering can be encouraged by grazing pasture with sheep or calves and by having high levels of soil fertility.
• Fertiliser Use
  Never apply when very wet weather is forecast as leaching will occur.
  Always apply at proper rate recommended by Teagasc.
  Always apply when the grass needs it i.e. when it is growing rapidly.
  Never apply too close to rivers or streams.
  Increased levels of nitrogen will increase the output of grass as nitrogen is needed to make chlorophyll which is used for photosynthesis.